Intracellular Accumulation | What Is intracellular accumulation in cell injury ?

 

Under some circumstances, cells may accumulate abnormal amounts of various substances, which may be harmless or associated with varying degrees of injury. The substance may be located in the cytoplasm, within organelles (typically lysosomes), or in the nucleus, and it may be synthesized by the affected cells or may be produced elsewhere. There are three main pathways of abnormal intracellular accumulations:

 

1. In a normal substance is produced at a normal or an increased rate, but the metabolic rate is inadequate to remove it. An example of this type of process is fatty change in the liver.
2. A normal or an abnormal endogenous substance accumulates because of genetic or acquired defects in its folding, packaging, transport, or secretion. Mutations that cause defective folding and transport may lead to accumulation of proteins (e.g- α1-antitrypsin deficiency).
3.  An inherited defect in an enzyme may result in failure to degrade a metabolite. The resulting disorders are called storage diseases. An abnormal exogenous substance is deposited and accumulates, because the cell has neither the enzymatic machinery to degrade the substance nor the ability to transport it to other sites. Accumulations of carbon or silica particles are the examples 

Types of Alteration | Intracellular Accumulation is a type of..

 

Fatty change refers to any abnormal accumulation of triglycerides within parenchymal cells. It is most often seen in the liver, since this is the major organ involved in fat metabolism, but it may also occur in heart, skeletal muscle, kidney and other organs. Steatosis (fatty changes) may be caused by toxins, protein malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, obesity and anoxia. Alcohol abuse and diabetes associated with obesity are the most common causes of
fatty change in the liver (fatty liver) in industrialized nations. Free fatty acids from adipose tissue or ingested food are normally transported into hepatocytes, where they are esterified to triglycerides, converted into cholesterol or phospholipids, or oxidized to ketone bodies. Some fatty acids are synthesized from acetate within the hepatocytes as well. Excess accumulation of triglycerides may result from defects at any step from fatty
acid entry to lipoprotein exit, thus accounting for the occurrence of fatty liver after diverse hepatic insults. Hepatotoxins (e.g., alcohol) alter mitochondrial and smooth endoplasmic reticulum function andbthus inhibit fatty acid oxidation; CCl4 and protein malnutrition decrease the synthesis of apoproteins; anoxia inhibits fatty acid oxidation; and starvation increases fatty acid mobilization from peripheral stores.

The significance of fatty acid change depends on the cause and severity of the accumulation. When mild, it may have no effect on cellular function. More severe fatty acid change may transiently impair cellular function, but unless some vital intracellular process is irreversibly impaired, fatty acid change is reversible. In the severe form, fatty acid change may precede cell death, and may be an early lesion in a serious liver disease called non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

Calcification | What Exactly Is ‘Calcification’ or ‘Calcifer’ 

 

It occurs when calcium builds up in body tissue, blood vessels or organs. This buildup can harden and disrupt body’s normal processes. Calcium is transported through the bloodstream and found in every cell. As a result, calcification can occur in almost any part of the body. About 99 % of body’s calcium is in teeth and bones. The other 1 % is in the blood, muscles, fluid outside the cells, and other body tissues.

Types of Calcification 

 

Calcifications can form in many places throughout body, including:

•  Small and large arteries
•  Heart valves
•  Brain, where it is known as cranial
  calcification
•  Joints and tendons, such as knee
  joints and rotator cuff tendons
•  Soft tissues like breasts, muscles,
  and fat
•  Kidney, bladder and gallbladder Some calcium buildup is harmless. These
  deposits are believed to be the body’s response to inflammation, injury, or certain
  biological processes. However, some calcifications can disrupt organ function and
  affect blood vessels.

Calcification Can Also Occur In these Sites In Body

• liver calcification
• pancreatic calcification
• calcification on teeth
• dystrophic calcification
• chronic calcific pancreatiti
• howl’s moving castle calcifer

 

Causes of Calcification:

Many factors have been found to play a role in calcification. These include: infections, calcium metabolism disorders that cause hyperkalaemia, genetic or autoimmune disorders affecting skeletal system and connective tissues, persistent inflammation.

•  Alkalosis:

Alkalosis is excessive blood alkalinity caused by an overabundance of bicarbonate in the blood or a loss of acid from the blood (metabolic alkalosis), or by a low level of carbon dioxide in the blood that results from rapid or deep breathing (respiratory
alkalosis).

• Metabolic Alkalosis:
  Metabolic alkalosis is a primary increase in serum bicarbonate (HCO3) concentration. This occurs as a consequence of a loss of H+ from the body or a gain in HCO3. Metabolic
  alkalosis is a pH imbalance in which the body has accumulated too much of an
  alkaline substance, such as bicarbonate, and does not have enough acid to effectively
  neutralize the effects of alkali.
• Respiratory Alkalosis:

Respiratory alkalosis is a condition where the amount of carbon dioxide found in the blood drops to below normal range. This condition produces a shift in the body’s pH balance and causes the body’s system to become more alkaline). This condition results in rapid, deep breathing called hyperventilation.

• Acidosis

Acidosis is caused by an overproduction of acid in the blood or an excessive loss of bicarbonate from the blood (metabolic acidosis) or by a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood that results from poor lung function or depressed breathing (respiratory acidosis).

• Metabolic Acidosis:

Metabolic acidosis is a pH imbalance in which the body has accumulated too much acid and does not have enough bicarbonate to effectively neutralize the effects of the acid or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body. If unchecked, metabolic acidosis leads to acidemia, i.e., blood pH is low (less than 7.35) due to increased production of hydrogen ions by the body or the inability of the body to form
bicarbonate (HCO3) in the kidney.

• Respiratory Acidosis:

Respiratory acidosis is a condition which occurs when the lungs are unable to remove all the carbon dioxide processed in body. The acid-base balance of body is hampered by this, causing the blood to become acidic.

 

Electrolytes | What Are Electrolytes | Electrolyte Imbalance

There are many chemicals in blood stream that regulate important functions of bodies. These chemicals are called electrolytes. When dissolved in water, electrolytes separate into positively and negatively charged ions. Human body’s nerve reactions and muscle functions are dependent upon the proper exchange of these electrolyte ions outside and inside
cells. Examples of electrolytes are calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium. Electrolyte imbalance can cause a variety of
symptoms.

Normal Adult values:

 

 

Note:

Normal values may vary from laboratory to laboratory Electrolyte Imbalance: The level of electrolyte in the body is abnormal called as electrolyte imbalance. An excess or
deficiency of certain electrolytes may lead to abnormality in various functions of the
body. The most serious electrolyte disturbance involves abnormalities in the
levels of Sodium, Potassium or Calcium. Other electrolyte imbalance is less common.
There are many causes of electrolyte imbalance, including rapid water loss
through diarrhoea, vomiting, perspiration, injury, blood loss, fluid loss from burns,
eating disorders, alcoholism, cancer, diabetes and certain medication. There are many causes for an electrolyte imbalance. Causes for an electrolyte imbalance may include: Loss of body fluids from prolonged vomiting, diarrhoea, sweating or high fever. Inadequate diet and lack of vitamins from food.

• Malabsorption: The body may be unable to absorb these electrolytes due to a variety of stomach disorders, medications, or may be how food is taken in Hormonal or endocrine disorders and Kidney disease. A complication of chemotherapy is tumorlysis syndrome. This occurs when body breaks down tumor cells rapidly after chemotherapy, causing a low blood calcium level, high blood potassium levels, and other electrolyte abnormalities. Certain medications may cause an electrolyte imbalance such as: Chemotherapy drugs (Cisplatin) Diuretics (furosemide [Lasix] or Bumetanide) Antibiotics (Amphotericin B) Corticosteroids (Hydrocortisone).

Symptoms of Electrolyte Imbalance:

An electrolyte imbalance may create a number of symptoms. The symptoms of electrolyte imbalance are based on which of the electrolyte levels are affected.

•  Blood test results indicate an altered potassium, magnesium, sodium, or calcium levels, may experience muscle spasm, weakness, twitching, or convulsions.
•  Blood test results showing low sodium levels may lead to: irregular heartbeat, confusion, blood pressure changes, nervous system or bone disorder.
•  Blood test results showing high levels of calcium may lead to: weakness or twitching of the muscles, numbness, fatigue, and irregular heartbeat and blood pressure changes.

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